Ninth Circuit Upholds Nationwide Injunction in State Lawstui Against Birthright Citizenship Order

A divided panel of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit has affirmed a district court’s nationwide injunction against enforcement of President Trump’s birthright citizenship Executive Order, concluding that the E.O. is likely unlawful and that a nationwide injunction is necessary to provide complete relief to the plaintiff states. [As I said in today's Civitas Outlook column: "universal injunctions are dead, long live nationwide relief."]

Judge Gould wrote for the panel in Washington v. Trump, joined by Judge Hawkins. Here is how he summarizes the opinion:

Washington, Arizona, Illinois, and Oregon (“States”) and individual expectant mothers (“Individual Plaintiffs”) challenge as unconstitutional Executive Order No. 14160 (“Executive Order”), which purports to deny citizenship to the children born in United States territory of parents temporarily or unlawfully present in the United States. See Protecting the Meaning and Value of American Citizenship, Exec. Order No. 14,160, 90 Fed. Reg. 8449 (Jan. 20, 2025). The district court entered a universal preliminary injunction which bars implementation of the Executive Order. Defendants appeal, contending that the States lack standing to challenge the Executive Order, that it was error to issue a preliminary injunction, and that the scope of the injunction is overbroad.

We address whether the Executive Order is constitutional and valid. We conclude that the Executive Order is invalid because it contradicts the plain language of the Fourteenth Amendment’s grant of citizenship to “all persons born in the United States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof.” We have jurisdiction under 28 U.S.C. § 1292(a)(1).

Because the Individual Plaintiffs are covered by a certified class action in another federal court, we decline to exercise jurisdiction over their claims and dismiss them. But because State Plaintiffs have standing and are likely to succeed in demonstrating that the Executive Order is unconstitutional, we affirm the district court’s grant of a preliminary injunction and its determination that a universal preliminary injunction is necessary to give the States complete relief on their claims.

Judge Bumatay dissented in part on standing grounds. He argues that the Court is, in effect, making up for the loss of universal injunctions by making it easier for states to establish standing and demand broad relief. His dissent begins:

For good reason, this case elicits strong reactions from all sides. Fewer questions could be more important than deciding who is entitled to American citizenship. And this is understandably so—citizenship in our country is worth fighting for. And it’s also worth ensuring that it is only conferred on those legally eligible to receive it. Despite, or perhaps because of, this, courts must be vigilant in enforcing the limits of our jurisdiction and our power to order relief. Otherwise, we risk entangling ourselves in contentious issues not properly before us and overstepping our bounds. No matter how significant the question or how high the stakes of the case—at all times, we must adhere to the confines of “the judicial Power.” U.S. Const. art. III, § 2, cl. 1. Exceeding those limits—even to settle a divisive issue—violates the Constitution.

Among the most profound innovations of our Constitution is our system of separated powers—one that grants each branch of our government only limited authority. The Founding generation understood this division was necessary to preserve liberty and prevent tyranny. With their personal experience at the hands of the British government—with its Star Chamber, arbitrary pronouncements, and other abuses—they knew that concentrating too much authority in only a few hands corrupts and threatens our freedoms. As a result, they established strict constitutional guardrails to keep each branch in its lane.

A vital separation-of-powers limit on the judiciary is that we may only grant party-specific relief. Under the constraints placed on lower courts by Congress, we may order only the “sorts of equitable remedies traditionally accorded by courts of equity at our country’s inception.” Trump v. CASA, Inc., 606 U.S. ___, 145 S. Ct. 2540, 2551 (2025) (simplified). For too long, this limit was ignored. All too often, district courts have issued universal injunctions—mandating relief to both injured plaintiffs and non-parties alike—as a matter of course. But, simply put, universal injunctions “lack a historical pedigree” and “fall outside the bounds of a federal court’s equitable authority under the Judiciary Act.” Id. at 2554. Indeed, runaway universal injunctions conflict with the judicial role—encouraging federal courts to “act more like a legislature by decreeing the rights and duties of people nationwide.” United States v. Texas, 599 U.S. 670, 703 (2023) (Gorsuch, J., concurring). So the Supreme Court has put an end to that practice.

To adhere to the separation of powers, then, federal courts must not grant an injunction “broader than necessary to provide complete relief to each plaintiff with standing to sue.” CASA, 145 S. Ct. at 2562–63. No longer can a single district court judge casually enjoin the actions of the political branches everywhere against everyone all at once. Now, plaintiffs must establish that a sweeping injunction is truly necessary for “complete relief.” And that inquiry must be searching—requiring the closest scrutiny to the plaintiff’s claimed injury. “[T]he broader and deeper the remedy the plaintiff wants, the stronger the plaintiff’s story needs to be.” Id. at 2558 (quoting S. Bray & P. Miller, Getting into Equity, 97 Notre Dame L. Rev. 1763, 1797 (2022)). True, sometimes complete relief may incidentally benefit non-parties, as in a public nuisance. See id. at 2557. But the key is that sweeping relief of that sort is “by far the exception,” justified only when “it would be all but impossible to devise relief that reaches only the plaintiffs.” Id. at 2565 (Thomas, J., concurring) (simplified). Thus, we should approach any request for universal relief with goodfaith skepticism, mindful that the invocation of “complete relief” isn’t a backdoor to universal injunctions. Otherwise, CASA would be a mere drafting exercise rather than a binding precedent. And finally, it’s worth remembering that “complete relief” functions not as a floor but as a ceiling—it’s not a “guarantee” but the “maximum a court can provide.” Id. at 2558 (majority opinion). Equity sometimes demands that courts grant less than complete relief.

Standing is another separation-of-powers mechanism to guard against judicial overreach. Standing keeps courts in their place: deciding only concrete disputes between an injured plaintiff and a defendant according to the law. Requiring an injury in fact before exercising jurisdiction “prevent[s] the judicial process from being used to usurp the powers of the political branches.” Clapper v. Amnesty Int’l. USA, 568 U.S. 398, 408 (2013). Courts, then, can’t be used to strike down disfavored laws on a whim. Instead, to invoke the judicial power, plaintiffs must establish actual harm traceable to the law. Otherwise, we risk transforming the judiciary into the “roving commission,” United States v. Hansen, 599 U.S. 762, 786 (2023) (Thomas, J., concurring) (simplified), for the “free-floating review” of executive and congressional action expressly rejected by the Founders, Moody v. NetChoice, LLC, 603 U.S. 707, 761 (2024) (Thomas, J., dissenting). The Founders left nonparticularized challenges to disfavored policy to the ballot box—not the courts.

And these two guardrails—party-specific relief and standing—must work in tandem. We can’t tighten one but loosen the other. That would be like squeezing one end of a balloon—it just pushes all the air to the other end. The net result is the same—inflated power for the judiciary. So with our authority to issue universal injunctions sharply curtailed, we must resist the temptation to expand our authority by reflexively granting third-party standing, indulging speculative harms, or allowing other jurisdictional end-runs. That concern is particularly acute in our dealings with States because they are often “not directly subject to the challenged policy” yet may seek wider-ranging redress than individual plaintiffs for “at most, collateral injuries.” See CASA, 145 S. Ct. at 2566 (Alito, J., concurring). As Justice Alito warned, lower courts must remain “conscientious[]” in applying thirdparty standing doctrine, “including against state plaintiffs.” Id. Otherwise, we grant States the power to “create a potentially significant loophole” evading the limits on universal injunctions by artful pleading. Id. That’s why we must be “rigorous” in our state-standing analysis if reaching the merits of the dispute would “force us to decide whether an action taken by one of the other two branches of the Federal Government was unconstitutional.” Raines v. Byrd, 521 U.S. 811, 819–20 (1997). In these cases, courts should not intervene “unless obliged to do so in the proper performance of our judicial function, when the question is raised by a party whose interests entitle him to raise it.” Valley Forge Christian Coll. v. Ams. United for Separation of Church & State, Inc., 454 U.S. 464, 474 (1982) (quoting Blair v. United States, 250 U.S. 273, 279 (1919)). The separation of powers demands no less.

With these principles in mind, I return to this case. On January 20, 2025, the President issued an Executive Order directing the federal government to no longer recognize the U.S. citizenship of children born in the United States to parents on a temporary visa or unlawfully present in the country. See Protecting the Meaning and Value of American Citizenship, Exec. Order No. 14,160, 90 Fed. Reg. 8449. (Jan. 20, 2025). The States of Washington, Arizona, Illinois, and Oregon (“State Plaintiffs”) immediately challenged the Executive Order. Cherly Norales Castillo and Alicia Chavarria Lopez (“Individual Plaintiffs”) also sued on behalf of their then-unborn children, who wouldn’t receive U.S. citizenship under the Executive Order. On February 6, 2025, the district court enjoined the enforcement and implementation of the Executive Order on a universal basis. The United States appealed.

I join Section III.B of the majority opinion in declining to reach the Individual Plaintiffs’ claims. As the majority observes, it appears that both Individual Plaintiffs have given birth, meaning their children are United States citizens—raising mootness concerns. It’s also a good call to avoid potential conflict with the overlapping class action pending in the District of New Hampshire. See Church of Scientology of Cal. v. U.S. Dep’t of Army, 611 F.2d 738, 750 (9th Cir. 1979). But in rigorously applying our standing doctrine, I conclude that State Plaintiffs have no standing at this time. Absent a party with Article III standing, it’s premature to address the merits of the citizenship question or the scope of the injunction.

I respectfully dissent in part.

With this decision, it would seem the birthright citizenship Executive Order will return to the Supreme Court next term.

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